Here an opportunity for those interested to do PhD in UK
The UKFS-CDT has up to 28 studentships available for cohort 3. Please apply by 23:59 GMT on Monday, 23rd January 2023. The application system is now open for cohort 3.
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The UKFS-CDT will train up to 60 interdisciplinary doctoral researchers capable of leading the UK towards a resilient, healthy and inclusive food future. Cohort 3 will start in autumn of 2023.
This 4-year programme is aimed at graduates with a strong interest in multi-disciplinary research and interdisciplinary food systems perspectives. Understanding the complex food system challenges requires holistic and novel interdisciplinary thinking. We invite highly motivated individuals from a wide range of academic or career backgrounds including humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and physical sciences to apply.
The UKFS-CDT brings together the NRI of the University of Greenwich (lead institution), UCL, Royal Veterinary College, IBERS at Aberystwyth University, Centre for Food Policy at City University, University of Sussex, and Brunel University London; and two leading agricultural research institutes, NIAB EMR and Rothamsted Research, plus over 50 food systems Academy partners from business, government and civil society.
Buna Qalaa (Slaughtered Coffee) is the coffee meal which is prepared from dried coffee berries by cooking them with butter after washing appropriately and cutting the tip off each coffee bean with one’s teeth. This study deals with the buna qalaa ritual of the Boorana Oromo.
Buna qalaa came from two Afan Oromo words i.e. buna (coffee) and qaluu (slaughtering). These two words, when come together has a meaning of common coffee meal which is made from coffee by cooking with butter after cutting its husks. Buna qalaa is prepared from dried coffee berries or from spilled coffee berries which are washed after cutting the tip of each coffee bean with the teeth. Among the Oromo, coffee is not considered as a plant and buna qalaa is not considered as a food. Coffee looks like grain, but it is said to have been “slaughtered” as if it were livestock. The reason behind this is, even if one has no cattle to slaughter to keep his guests with tallow/meedhicha1 , he can slaughter coffee in order to keep them warm. Slaughtering coffee is considered as slaughtering an animal. Those who do not have livestock slaughter coffee for their guests and others. Individuals who do not have animals for sacrifice can use coffee for the same requirement. Slaughtering coffee is equivalent to animal scarification. Even if one slaughters oxen for guests, he first serves coffee. Coffee precedes everything. Guests wash their feet and eat coffee, drink milk and smear butter to go to bed or go out to a meeting. The outgoing guest is also seen off after providing them with slaughtered coffee. To not slaughter coffee for a guest means denying them the respect they deserve. When one slaughters an animal, he cuts its neck; similarly, people cut coffee with their teeth. The symbolism is similar. For this reason, coffee is seen as being slaughtered in the same way that an animal is slaughtered.
Procedures of Preparing Buna Qalaa To prepare buna qalaa, first, buna duudaa (virgin coffee beans) are appropriately washed and its husks are cracked with the teeth. Next, the wife of the house in which it is prepared, places qorii2 under each of the attendants so that they share their part in the cutting of the husks of the coffee bean, which is ritualistic. Everybody taking a coffee bean says inaudibly, “itti qixeessi Waaqa” two times and holds it on the third. Then, the shells of the dry coffee beans are fissured with the teeth so that butter and milk can enter deep in to the inner part. Opening of the coffee bean can help butter to interfuse with the coffee which is used as a flavor to test and also has certain symbolic meaning. As they do this they say “Afaan sikutee, afaan waan hamtuu narraa kuti”, meaning “we are cutting your opening, cut our enemies from us.” Cracking the husks of coffee is made to allow the milk and butter to enter deep into the coffee bean which prevents the coffee from jumping out of the pan. It is impossible to prepare buna qalaa without cutting the husks of the coffee bean. First and foremost, butter cannot enter deep into the inner part. Coffee beans without butter are burned when roasted, but with butter it is roasted smoothly and becomes colorful. The inner and outer part of the bean is roasted equally with the help of the butter. On the other hand, if coffee beans are not fissured, they will jump out of the coffee frying pan. When slaughtered coffee is added to the prepared milk, there is a reaction called tooruu, which is the sound it makes. This sound is followed by “Nagee! Nagee! Nagee!,” the words of imploring peace by all attendees. Fresh butter is added to the coffee beans while it is on the fire. When the supply of butter is diminishing, oil is used as a replacement for it. When there is no milk in the house, aanan hoolaa gurraachaa3 with its literal meaning of “the milk of black sheep” is used for the preparation of buna qalaa. After that, a salt bar is added to the mixture in order to make it sweet though today it is largely being replaced by sugar. It is then slaughtered and divided into two. When it is cooked, butter is added to it. When it cools, that is the point at which the coffee bean is separated. After the milk, butter, the slaughtered coffee is digested well, and it is added to qorii for the attendants.
Tasting of Buna Qalaa, Blessing and Social Values Buna qalaa (coffee slaughtering ritual) is accompanied by blessing of the Gadamoojjii4 . At the absence of Gadaamojjii, every person who is fluent can perform the blessing except for bachelors. Before the ritualized tasting, the headman of the family performs the blessing. The blessing is as follows: For each blessing, the attendants response is “Nagee” (peace) The following are the blessings for the one administering it, along with literal translations: Eelee gurraattii (Black pan) Buna Gurraacha (Black coffee) Nagaa nu guuti (Fill us with peace) Kumi kunuu nagaa (This Kuma is peace) Manat qalanii manni kunuu nagaa (It’s slaughtered at home let this home be peace) Mana kana nagaa guuti (Fill this house with peace) Biyyaa biyyeen nuu nagaa (Make the country and its land peaceful for us) Gochi kunuu nagaa (This clan is peace)…. Warri kunuu nagaa (This family is peace) Fulaan nu jirru kunuu nu nagaa (The very place we’re at is peace) Ardaan nagaa (The locality is peace) Dheedi nagaa (The pastures are peace) Reeri nagaa (Cluster of village is peace) Ollaan nagaa (Let our neighbors be in peace) Tiksaan nagaa (Let herders be in peace) Tiksaa uleen nagaa (Let herders and cattle be in peace) Gaadiin nagaa (Let cow milk be in peace) Karraan mijaa’i (Be brimful in kraal) Ilmaan mijaa’i (Be brimful in offspring) Warraa ollaan nagaa (Let the neighborhood be at peace) Elelleen nagaa (Let women be at peace) Elemtuun nagaa (Let the milk container be at peace) Bobbaan magratti qajeela (Let cattle released to pasture be at peace) Marroon karat qajeela (Cows come to grass) Ilmat abbaat qajeela (The son resembles the father) Niitiit dhirsat qajeela (The wife and husband feel comfort) Sugaa bokkaat nut qajeela (Let the prosperity and rain come to us) Barbadaa maddi sifa (Let small pasture & small water suit/ be abundant) Bokkaan sifa (The rain will suit) Kosiin qumbii (The backyard smells good) Raadaa jibichi hormaata (Let the heifer and the young bull be fertile) Ilmaa intalti hormaata (Let the young women and young men be fertile) Horaa bulaa (Prosper and live long) Horaa nagaan gala (Return from watering in peace) Kankee elmadhu (Milk your own) Kankee ergadhu (Send your own) Dhaddacha ta’ii (Be upheel) Jalaan kosaa’i (Be fertile from underneath) Gubbaan daraari (Blossom from up) Tulluu namdur ta’i (Be the mountain of early man) Gamaa gamasit mul’adhu (Be visible from all directions) Horii buli deebani (Be prosperous, live long and multitude) After this detailed blessing, he sips and dyes the butter, and then shares to the attendees to do the same.
This blessing includes sprouting, prosperity, female, male, pasture, wetness, children, the naïve, the matured, elderly women and men as a whole. Tasting of the mijuu (full) is started by the household and passed on to other attendants. Seniors taste the slaughtered coffee and juniors then follow. It is just for the sake of taste and is consumed symbolically. Whoever is elder/senior, the head of the household (husband) is the person to taste first. But his tasting is simply symbolic and he does not eat before the elders/seniors. Even if his father is attending, the son, the head of the household, tastes the slaughtered coffee first. During buna qalaa, the elders/seniors sit at the front and eat the coffee first. Seniority is not according to age only, as it can also ranked in terms of clan…. Coffee is not slaughtered during the night except for the days of gubbisa 5 , weddings, and other rituals/ceremonies which are conducted during the night. The other only day on which coffee is slaughtered during night is the day the qaalluu6 has died7 . Similarly, even if the husband comes home during the night, the wife slaughters the coffee during the day and heats it, although for this not everyone is invited. Coffee is highly respected and considered as good fortune. Even if one is in an extreme hurry, it is wrong to leave the coffee being prepared without tasting it. In the case of an emergency which forces one not to wait until it is prepared, ibsachuu8 is performed. However, even if one is in a hurry, he/she smears the forehead before leaving. This practice is believed to protect one from disasters and difficulties in one’s future and activities. Let alone in your own home, whenever one comes across the preparation of buna qalaa when traveling, it is obligatory to perform ibsachuu or stay and enjoy buna qalaa if possible. If one ignores the coffee being slaughtered and leaves to attend to his business, “Karaan sin lakkisuu sagalee hin lakkisin” is said, which means “Way does not leave you, don’t leave food!” – food is coffee here. On the way, such a person faces bad luck. The person is believed to fail in his/her intention. People say, “We have warned him, he ignored our warning and faced misfortune.” He fails in his purpose.
Thus, overlooking the blessing of coffee makes one fail in whatever is being done. Therefore, where there is slaughtered coffee, there is peace and success. Still if there is an enemy on the society’s land, the forecasters look to the coffee as it tells of one’s future life. Those who can foresee forecast the future, see the problems and disasters ahead. There are also experts who understand the messages of the smoke of coffee by reading its shape and direction. In the case of seeing some dreadful dreams during the night, buna qalaa is prepared early in the morning before all members of the family leave for their daily chores. Then, the dream is interpreted and the misfortune is averted by the smoke of the coffee and the prayers of the elders which accompany the coffee ceremony. If cattle are lost in the pasture, coffee is slaughtered early in the morning before going out to search for the cattle. Similarly, if a donkey is lost, some individuals look at the coffee in order to know of its whereabouts. One who has lost his cattle says, “kuma!” (take coffee) three times and gives it over to such individuals. Forecasters even add coffee into a container, saying “This animal is at that and that place, it is in those herds, you’ll find it there.”….
The butter from which the buna qalaa is prepared is smeared in the pursuit of peace. They consider dyeing their hands, feet, and foreheads as relieving bad luck or chasing away evil. Always coffee is slaughtered by married women.
Girls who wear the gaammee style of hair do not slaughter coffee as coffee represents family, and second it represents issues of reproduction (sexual intercourse). Unmarried men also do not slaughter coffee since they would not have their own home, and therefore has nowhere to perform the ritual. As mentioned, girls abstain from cutting the husks of the coffee bean because the act is symbolized as the deflowering of virginity; thus, girls are not to witness the act because of the symbolic meaning. Boys too do not engage in sexual intercourse before marriage; therefore, they do not partake in the cutting of husks of coffee beans, which would be the equivalent to taking the virginity of a girl before marriage. For instance, when boys come home from herding, watering or taking cattle away, their mother will perform the ritual for them. – only others can do it for them, and they cannot do it for themselves. If they are taking cattle away, going off to war or another purpose, it is prepared at home and given to them so that they can consume it there in small amounts over time. Thus, through slaughtering coffee, womanhood and motherhood is ensured. As a social group, only women are eligible to slaughter coffee as girls not yet exposed to fertility are disallowed from taking part.
The coffee bean, because of its shape typically represent the womb in which children are impregnated and life is sustained. As a result, buna qalaa is not eaten by one individual, rather it is tasted together for the symbolism that one cannot enjoy sex alone. Coffee is believed to be of the woman. First of all, coffee slaughtering requires the presence of women as they are the slaughterers. In a house having no wife, the fire is not set as it believed that it requires a wife to have a fire. Terms such as “his fire is extinguished” or “his fire went far” means that a man’s his wife has died. A married man and an unmarried man even have different burial grounds to signify their marital status. In short, cutting the husks of the coffee bean is highly symbolic as the practice holds deep cultural meaning. For instance, virgin girls cannot be become miraculously… impregnated. Pregnancy only comes after virginity is broken and sperm is ejaculated into the womb of the girl. The shape of the coffee bean is like a bead (or cowry shell) and is seen as similar to the female organ. It signals fertility in a sense that an untouched coffee bean is cracked and a life giving item is entered in order to change its status, size and color. This signals the first day of sexual intercourse when the virginity of the girl is broken (cracked in this sense) and sperm enters the womb of the girl to alter her status (from girl to womanhood), and brings about pregnancy and later on a child (life). Life is produced when sexual intercourse between the two sexes is performed. Similarly, buna qalaa is not tasted alone; likewise one cannot enjoy sexual intercourse alone.
Muduunuu (the wooden cup in which buna qalaa is prepared) too represents the female organ while the stirring stick symbolizes the male organ. Similarly, numbers have great symbolic meaning to these coffee related rituals. Although numbers are attached to certain philosophical outlooks among the Boorana Oromo, the number three, seven and eight hold special significance in the Gadaa system. This is backed by the saying “Sadii Waaqi ergatee, torba Waaqi eebbisee, saddeet Waaqi kenne,” which roughly means God sent three, blessed seven and gave eight. For instance, a typical blessing takes place with three individuals. Similarly, there are seven important rituals in the Gadaa system. With regards to eight, the transfer of power takes place every eight years. When a child is born, the Boorana bless the child by saying “saddeet bobbaasi, saddeet mogggaasi,” meaning herd/lead out eight cattle (symbolically indicating “many”) and beget eight (to mean many) children. Everything is structured around the number eight. As a result, kumaa kumisa (coffee reserved and kept in each and every Boorana Oromo’s home) should be seven or its twofold, fourteen which is sanctified by Waaqa. Among the Boorana Oromo, Kuma11 which literally means thousand is an idiomatic expression for coffee. As coffee first flourished on Kuma’s irreessa 12(grave) for the first time, the Boorana Oromo swear by saying “bunni naa Kumaa kiyya” which nearly means “I swear to Kumaa” when they want to prove that a single coffee bean is not available in their house.
In general, since coffee is common in rituals, philosophies, social life, ecological knowledge and the religion of the Oromo, it is safe to conclude that the Oromo live their lives with coffee and they the two are inseparable. Currently, the Boorana Oromo follow different denominations other than their indigenous religion, waaqeffannaa. However, buna qalaa, which is deep-rooted in religious worldviews are an integral part of their ritualistic and daily life and practiced by each and every family of the Boorana Oromo. On the other hand, the physical environment which is occupied by the people is largely arid and which is obviously not conducive for coffee production. Like other Oromo groups, however, the cultural values of coffee are highly valued despite the fact that weather condition of the area are not favorable for coffee cultivation. This shows the time tested presence of coffee related cultural practices in general and for the buna qalaa ritual in particular for the Oromo
Coffee Vis-a-Vis Oromo Rituals The usage of coffee (in fact in different forms) is highly prevalent on rites of passage among the Oromo. Buna buufachuu (pouring of the coffee) on the wedding day (Qashu, 2009), coffee bean as a symbol of woman’s ovaries (Bartels, 1983; Baxter, Hultin, & Triulzi, 1996; Wayessa, 2011), coffee as an important item of the guddifachaa ceremony (Ayalew, 2002) are the best indicators of the fact that coffee is rooted in Oromo culture. A request for blessings and the offering of coffee beans to Waaqa and buna qalaa is ritualized (Wayessa, 2011). Similarly, the “buna qalaa” ritual is an indigenous Oromo cultural practice whereby the Oromo people prepare a lavish feast from a combination of roasted coffee berries and melted butter on many popular cultural and religious occasions like the Gadaa, muuduu (anointment), Buttaa, Gumaa reconciliation, weddings and other traditional ceremonies. These indigenous rituals have their own entrenched sociocultural and religious implications that should not be configured in the absence of “buna qalaa” ceremony. This further implies that coffee is an inseparable entity from popular and deep-rooted Oromo cultural and religious life (Geremew, 2013). Similarly, Bartles and Workneh placed the ritual and symbolic significance of coffee during the ateetee ritual: where an old but healthy cow should be sacrificed in order for the cattle to breed well, for a bull to serve a cow, for a pregnancy to be successful, and for a land to be leveled. “The cherry-like coffee fruits are bitten open and stewed in melted butter.” The butter enters the fruits and reaches the beans inside. These beans which, because of their shape, account for the coffee fruits “use as a symbol of the woman: their shape is reminder of the female organ much as cowry-shells are” (Bartels, 1983; Kelbessa, 2001). Bartels (1983) also stated that the Oromo people have been utilizing coffee from time immemorial, and that the art of preparing coffee is central to their everyday cultural practices. In Oromo society, coffee has always been used as a medicine, as a food and as a beverage; as well as in ritual performances. It is traditionally believed that the first coffee plant sprouted from the tears of Waaqa. Therefore, coffee is always a major feature of every ceremony (Haberland, 1963) and it retains an essential cultural and spiritual element across the diverse range of the Oromo groups (Yedes, Clamons, & Osman, 2004). From the aforementioned assertions, one can deduce that the usage of coffee is closely associated with worldview and embedded in religious practices. Coffee related customs are outward expressions of inwardly experienced values and beliefs. It has been reported that the beans were eaten by warriors, farmers and merchants faced with hard work or long journeys (Wild, 2005) by which they were able to overcome the problems of hunger and exhaustion. Generally, the function of coffee is not limited to a beverage among the Oromo; it is interlaced with completing ritual patterns, environmental protection, food, serving as a folk medicine and a source of living. This interrelationship indicates that the Oromo culture and way of life is very much dependent on coffee. Coffee ceremony, presence of coffee at rituals, and its symbolic meanings all reveal that coffee is steeped in Oromo culture from many AYEHU BACHA, LENIN KUTO, DEREJE FUFA and KAMIL MOHAMMED 29 ÜNİVERSİTEPARK Bülten | Bulletin • Volume 7 • Issue 1 • 2018 perspectives; thus, one can safely say that coffee has always had a very crucial place in the culture of the Oromo. In general, one can understand that the multidimensional nature and significance of coffee has not yet been approached in any great detail. Some academic works given passing comment on the interconnectedness of coffee and Oromo rituals, but still, the way coffee is used in various forms of Oromo rituals has yet to be revealed. Therefore, this current study looks deeply at the philosophical underpinnings of the Oromo that are related with the buna qalaa ritual by focusing on the Boorana Oromo.
Historical manuscripts indicates that Islam in Ethiopia dates back to the year 615 AD when the first Muslim, among them Prophet Mohammad’s wife came to Ethiopia as refugees and settled in Negash, a small village located 60 km east of Mekelle, the capital of Tigray State. The Quraysh sent emissaries to bring them back to Arabia, but the king of Ethiopia refused their demands.
The Prophet himself instructed his followers who came to Ethiopia, to respect and protect Ethiopia as well as live in peace with Ethiopian Christians, as Selahadin Eshetu (PhD), a Political Commentator, International Relations Expert and Writer described king Negash on his thesis entitled “Authentic History of King Negash of Abyssinia”
When they first arrived in the land of peace and justice, the then Christian king of Abyssinia (Ethiopia) welcomed them in a hospitable and heartwarming manner. He ordered his subjects to support the strangers by whatever means they can.
This magnificent scenario was used as a symbol of religious tolerance which had been depicting the assimilation, cooperation and mutual understanding between Ethiopian Muslims and Christians for several centuries. In addition to this, Ethiopia became the first country to allow Muslims to practice their faith without any obstacle.
Selahadin describes King Al Nejashi ” as a humble and welcoming king who enabled to create positive impression of his country on the minds of Muslims. He stated that having noticed the warm reception of his followers by Christian king, the Prophet of Islam ordered all Muslims not to declare Jihad on Ethiopia at any time unless attacked and since then the religion has started to expand its magnitude by increasing its followers in Ethiopia.
“What makes Islam peculiar in Ethiopia, unlike from the rest of the world, is that, in the first place it was preached, spread and accepted peacefully throughout the whole territory of Ethiopia. Secondly, Islam always co-exists harmoniously with other religions. That is why that one can find family members in Ethiopia who exercise different religions in the same roof,” Selahadin noted.
Nowadays the village of Negash or Nejashi, which hosts the first Muslims refugees in history, boasts its 7th century old Mosque. The Al Nejashi mosque is as old as the faith of Islam in Ethiopia and it is believed to be the first mosque in Africa. The mosque is considered by many as one of the most sacred places of Islamic worship and rightly dubbed by some as “The second Makkah”.
Many world leaders especially from Islamic countries have visited Al Nejashi and they have expressed their admiration to the deep history it holds. Ex-President Sudanese Omar Hassen Albeshar and Djiboutian President Ismael Omar Guile were among the high profile people who visited the Mosque
Though it is one of the promising tourism potentials of the country, this ancient mosque was deprived of attention. However, in the couple of years, there are encouraging initiations aimed to reinstate the Mosque to its proper status. Cognizant of this fact, the Ethiopian government has started to undertake various activities to make the historical mosque a tourist destination.
According to the Tigray Tourism and Culture Bureau annual magazine, Al Nejashi has been renovated with a financial help from the Turkish Cooperation and Coordination Agency (TIKA) in 2018. The renovation was carried out by both Turkish and Ethiopian engineers with a view to ensuring the mosque’s original architecture remains intact.
“We are delighted to have the opportunity to give this iconic Islamic monument the renovation it deserves,” Ismail Durhat, TIKA’s country coordinator for Ethiopia, told Anadolu Agency
According to Durhat, a number of auxiliary structures will be built, including accommodations for guests, a visitors’ lounge and lavatories. Since the site remains a functioning mosque in which Muslims still perform prayers, the renovations also include construction of a smooth track to ease access for those with disabilities. Meanwhile, the historic mosque was damaged during the law and order enforcement campaign declared last year and the Ethiopian government has pledged to renovate it.
Upon completion of the renovation process, the mosque would be one of the top tourist destinations in the country. This could pave a way for its inscription in UNESCO’s Tangible World Heritage. If so, it would have ample opportunity to be visited by the Islamic world in a way of annual religious pilgrimage.
Rest in Peace to Woizero Amarech Zeleke, Hawassa lost a great business woman !
She had a very humble beginning as a widowed mother of three.
Her husband was a lieutenant and died in the service of Ethiopia and she had to face the challenging task of raising three children on her own with a very meager financial resource.
She started a small restaurant business in her own two rooms residence which she rented from government in Hawassa city.
She owns one of the most prestigious hotels in Hawassa, a town in Southern Ethiopia
More than her business success story, she has achieved a remarkable success in building an excellent social relation not just in the city but beyond.
The secret is that she was very altruistic and believes in the power of sharing, spiritually or otherwise. Among many other things, she feeds Hawassa soccer players, for those who need it and she also visits patients in hospitals whether she knows them or not.
Based on a documentary report from Fana, she runs her business more like a philanthropist organization and less like business. Yet, she is very successful.
Share this amazing post! 💞💖😍 The turkey displayed leadership qualities such as responsibility, problem-solving, communication, adaptability, courage, empathy, decisiveness, strategic thinking, persistence, inspiring, collaboration, and vision by blocking traffic and safely guiding its group across the road.
Here are some lessons we can learn from this video:
▶. Responsibility: The turkey took charge of the situation and assumed responsibility for the safety of its group. ▶ Problem-solving: The turkey identified a problem (traffic on the road) and came up with a solution (blocking traffic to create a safe passage for its group). ▶ Communication: The turkey was able to effectively communicate its intentions to the other members of its group, and guide them through the process of crossing the road safely. ▶ Adaptability: The turkey was able to adapt to the unexpected situation and come up with a creative solution on the spot. ▶ Courage: The turkey was not afraid to take bold action and put itself in a potentially dangerous situation in order to protect its group. ▶ Empathy: The turkey showed concern for the well-being of its group and took action to ensure their safety. ▶ Decisiveness: The turkey made a quick and confident decision to block traffic in order to protect its group. ▶ Strategic thinking: The turkey likely considered various options and chose the most effective solution for the situation at hand. ▶ Persistence: The turkey stuck with its plan until every member of its group was safely across the road. ▶ Inspiring: The turkey’s actions may have inspired other members of its group to follow its lead and trust in its guidance. ▶ Collaboration: The turkey worked with its group to achieve a common goal, demonstrating the importance of teamwork and cooperation. ▶ Vision: The turkey had a clear vision of what needed to be done and took action to make it happen, showing strong foresight and planning abilities.
At the entrance gate of a university in South Africa the following message was posted for contemplation:
*”Destroying any nation does not require the use of atomic bombs or the use of long range missiles. It only requires lowering the quality of education and allowing cheating in the examinations by the students.”*
Patients die at the hands of such doctors.
Buildings collapse at the hands of such engineers.
Money is lost at the hands of such economists & accountants.
Humanity dies at the hands of such religious scholars.
Justice is lost at the hands of such judges…
*”The collapse of education is the collapse of the nation.”*
YessEthiopia 